Cowboy Literacy Club: Research and Resources for Enhancing Literacy Instruction
My name is Patrick Manyak. I have taught literacy courses at UW, conducted research in schools, and consulted with many WY teachers for 20 years. My research focuses on vocabulary and writing instruction, but I am interested in all areas of elementary literacy. I plan to use this site to share important new research, provide instructional materials that I create for research schools, and facilitate discussion of critical issues in literacy instruction. I hope that you will find the site useful!
Thursday, July 23, 2020
Study Suggests Regression in Foundational Reading Skills across Primary Grades
(2020) Reducing High-Attaining Readers to Middling: The Consequences of Inadequate Foundational Skills Instruction in a High-SES District, Literacy Research and Instruction, DOI: 10.1080/19388071.2020.1780653
Thursday, March 19, 2020
A New Study on the Effects of Letter-Sound Instruction in Kindergarten
Hello Friends!
I just read this very recently published research study from Norway that addresses a very important practical issue in teaching beginning literacy: the pace of instruction of letter-sound relationships in kindergarten. This topic hasn't been subject of much research (although note that Jones and Reutzel [way to go Dean Ray!] did examine it in a quasi-experiment in Utah). The Norwegian study was a basically a "natural" quasi-experiment and involve a very large sample of kids and classrooms. Importantly, the research found that a faster pace of introducing letter sounds in kindergarten led to stronger outcomes in letter knowledge, word reading and spelling and was particularly important for students who enter school with poor letter knowledge. Here are some of the key takeaways in the authors' own words...
Discussion
This
study was designed to find out whether a faster pace of letter instruction
contributes to the development
of
letter knowledge, word reading, and spelling skills in the first year of
school, and whether a faster pace of
letter
instruction reduces or increases the probability of very low or very high
scores on literacy measures. In
general,
the findings from the present study were in line with the hypotheses put
forward. More specifically,
children
in classes with faster letter instruction performed significantly better on all
outcome measures and
were
less likely to score among the lowest 10% and 20%. Also, a faster pace of
letter instruction was
significantly
associated with word-reading accuracy in the higher end of the distribution.
These findings are
in
line with that of Jones and Reutzel (2012) that
a faster pace of letter instruction affects children’s
development
in letter knowledge. The present study adds to the existing literature by
showing that outcomes
in
word reading and spelling are also associated with the pace of letter
instruction.
Effect
of letter-instruction pace on the development of letter knowledge, word reading
and
Spelling
The
observed effect of letter-instruction pace on letter knowledge supports the
hypothesis that
a
faster pace gives children better opportunities for sufficient repetition and
practice of the
which
helps them to decode different words. In addition, especially for sight word
efficiency,
obtaining
a high score requires keeping representations of several words in one’s memory,
and
the ability to do this is best acquired through multiple encounters with words,
through
both
reading and writing (Adams, 1990).
The
explanation for the significant effect seen for spelling seems to follow the
same line of
reasoning
as for word reading. Young children typically read words better than they spell
them,
as spelling requires grapheme retrieval and is more dependent on memory and
ample
practice
while word reading requires only grapheme recognition (Perfetti, 1997).
Still, a faster
pace
of letter instruction seems to provide children with better opportunities to
develop their
spelling
skills as well, possibly as a result of both better knowledge of the letters
and more
time
to practice.
Letter-instruction
pace and the likelihood of tail-end scores for letter knowledge, word
reading
and spelling
Children
who first start school are typically a very heterogeneous group in terms of
literacy, ranging
from
children who know only some of the letters to children who are already fluent
readers and
writers
(Justice et al., 2006; Piasta, 2014; Sigmundsson et al., 2017).
Letter knowledge at school entry
is
known to be a strong predictor of the development of reading skill (H. Catts,
Fey, Tomblin, &
Zhang,
2002; Leppanen et al., 2008;
National Early Literacy Panel, 2008; Schatschneider et al., 2004),
and if
children who know few letters at school entry have to wait, say, 19 weeks
before they are
introduced
to a letter that they need in order to read and spell, this will delay their
ability to read and
write
many words. Our findings indicate that contrary to the highest performing
children, the lowest
performing
children benefit from a faster introduction of the letters on all outcome
measures. These
results
partly contradicts the results by Connor et al. (2004) to
the effect that the level of literacy
skills
(letter recognition, letter knowledge, and word reading) at school entry is a
stronger predictor
of
literacy development than classroom instruction.
Jones
et al. (2013) highlight the opportunity to repeat and practice the letters
more often during the
first
year of school as a particular benefit of introducing them faster. Our findings
suggest that this is
particularly
important for children with poor letter knowledge at school entry – who
typically need more
explicit
exposure to letters in order to learn them sufficiently well (Jones et al., 2013;
Piasta & Wagner,
2010b;
Treiman et al., 2007). In classrooms with a slow instructional pace, children who need
such explicit
instruction
will typically learn those letters that are introduced early on quite well, as
they can repeat and
use
them more often during the academic year. However, because most children will
have automatized
their
letter knowledge during the first year, there tends to be rather less explicit
letter instruction in later
years.
As a result, the children needing such explicit instruction may not have
sufficient time to
automatize
those letters that are introduced towards the end of the first year. Hence,
children already
at
risk of reading difficulties are further disadvantaged by a slow pace (Jones et
al., 2013). As pointed out
earlier
in the discussion, letter knowledge represents one of the steps of the early
development of literacy
skills,
and children in classes with faster letter instruction are in fact less likely
to perform poorly in word
reading
and spelling. This is in line with Jones et al. (2013),
where it is emphasized that the purpose of
letter
knowledge is reading and writing and that a slow pace of letter instruction
takes up valuable time,
leaving
children with less time to develop their reading and spelling skills.
Kristin
Sunde, Bjarte Furnes & Kjersti Lundetræ (2019): Does Introducing the
Letters
Faster Boost the Development of Children’s Letter Knowledge, Word Reading and
Spelling
in the
First Year of School?, Scientific Studies
of Reading, DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2019.1615491
Sunday, February 16, 2020
Phonics/Decoding Doesn't Need More Support, But Here is Some Anyway...
Hello Friends!
A couple of my previous posts have dealt with the vital nature of robust phonics/decoding instruction. There is, of course, endless research support for such instruction. However, this recent study from England was called to my attention, and I thought that it was worth sharing. The abstract does a good job of summarizing the basic findings, so I have pasted it in here. What I find particularly noteworthy is the documentation of long-term effects - the impact that developing/not developing proficiency in decoding has on kids' reading comprehension four years down the line. Connie Juel reported similar long-term effects resulting from proficient/lack of proficient decoding back in the 80's. Hopefully, schools will hear this message better in 2020 than they did back then!
Kit S. Double, Joshua A. McGrane, Jamie C. Stiff & Therese N. Hopfenbeck. (2019). The importance of early phonics improvements for predicting later reading comprehension. British Educational Research Journal,45(6), 1220–1234.
The role of phonics instruction in early reading development has been the subject of significant conjecture. Recently, England implemented a phonics screening check to assess the phonetic decoding of 6-year-old students, to ensure that all students master this foundational literacy skill and attain adequate phonemic awareness in the early years of primary schooling. Students who fail this check are obliged to retake the assessment the following year. In this article, we compare the performance of students who initially pass this check (pass) and students who fail the original assessment but pass the retaken assessment (fail–pass), with students who fail both the original and retaken assessments (fail–fail). Using data from the Key Stage 1 assessment of reading and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), we examined the reading comprehension performance of these students approximately 1 and 4 years after their first phonics screening. The results suggested that fail–pass students performed substantially better than fail–fail students, even after performance on the initial phonics check was controlled for. While fail–pass students do not appear to entirely catch up with pass students in reading comprehension, their relatively better performance underscores the importance of intervening for those students who are identified as having problems with phonetic decoding to increase their likelihood of success at reading comprehension in later schooling.
A couple of my previous posts have dealt with the vital nature of robust phonics/decoding instruction. There is, of course, endless research support for such instruction. However, this recent study from England was called to my attention, and I thought that it was worth sharing. The abstract does a good job of summarizing the basic findings, so I have pasted it in here. What I find particularly noteworthy is the documentation of long-term effects - the impact that developing/not developing proficiency in decoding has on kids' reading comprehension four years down the line. Connie Juel reported similar long-term effects resulting from proficient/lack of proficient decoding back in the 80's. Hopefully, schools will hear this message better in 2020 than they did back then!
Kit S. Double, Joshua A. McGrane, Jamie C. Stiff & Therese N. Hopfenbeck. (2019). The importance of early phonics improvements for predicting later reading comprehension. British Educational Research Journal,45(6), 1220–1234.
The role of phonics instruction in early reading development has been the subject of significant conjecture. Recently, England implemented a phonics screening check to assess the phonetic decoding of 6-year-old students, to ensure that all students master this foundational literacy skill and attain adequate phonemic awareness in the early years of primary schooling. Students who fail this check are obliged to retake the assessment the following year. In this article, we compare the performance of students who initially pass this check (pass) and students who fail the original assessment but pass the retaken assessment (fail–pass), with students who fail both the original and retaken assessments (fail–fail). Using data from the Key Stage 1 assessment of reading and the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), we examined the reading comprehension performance of these students approximately 1 and 4 years after their first phonics screening. The results suggested that fail–pass students performed substantially better than fail–fail students, even after performance on the initial phonics check was controlled for. While fail–pass students do not appear to entirely catch up with pass students in reading comprehension, their relatively better performance underscores the importance of intervening for those students who are identified as having problems with phonetic decoding to increase their likelihood of success at reading comprehension in later schooling.
Thursday, January 9, 2020
Vocabulary Instruction and Google Images
Google Images has made it extremely easy to pair an image with a
target vocabulary word. In the MCVIP & VALE research projects, our
teachers paired images with all target words on vocab word walls. Here
is a typical word wall that features target words with images pulled
from Google.
With regard to instruction, an image may be all it takes to get across the meaning of a concrete noun like musket or sandspit in a memorable way. But, with other kinds of words images may be even more valuable as a teaching tool, serving as an excellent way prompt to students to think deeply about or apply a word meaning. Consider the word dismayed. One of our teachers paired this image with this target word...
After providing a kid-friendly definition of dismayed and several examples of use, we could then ask students these type of questions about the image:
Finally, just committing to finding a Google Image for each of your target words ensures that you are planning ahead for your vocabulary instruction. Such planning always leads to crisper, clearer introductions and discussions of new word meanings.
With regard to instruction, an image may be all it takes to get across the meaning of a concrete noun like musket or sandspit in a memorable way. But, with other kinds of words images may be even more valuable as a teaching tool, serving as an excellent way prompt to students to think deeply about or apply a word meaning. Consider the word dismayed. One of our teachers paired this image with this target word...
After providing a kid-friendly definition of dismayed and several examples of use, we could then ask students these type of questions about the image:
- Why do you think that I would show you this picture for the word dismayed?
- If you were in one of the tall buildings, would you be dismayed? Why or why not? If you were on the top of one of the mountains in the background, would you be dismayed? Why or why not?
- Can you give me (or write) a sentence about this image picture that includes the word dismayed?
Finally, just committing to finding a Google Image for each of your target words ensures that you are planning ahead for your vocabulary instruction. Such planning always leads to crisper, clearer introductions and discussions of new word meanings.
The Impact of Word Reading and Vocabulary on Middle School Reading Comprehension
Hello Literacy
Friends!
As I continued to
update my knowledge for my upcoming Literacy Difficulties course, I came across
a very recent article that examines the relative impact of word reading and vocabulary
knowledge on the reading comprehension of adequate and struggling adolescent readers.
I found that the article does an excellent job laying out these relationships and
thus gives real insight into the causes of differences in reading comprehension
among adolescents. I will try to unpack the findings in an efficient manner for
you all here.
First, the study
included 796 middle schoolers (average age of 14.1), with 491 in the adequate
comprehension group and 305 in the struggling comprehension group (below 30% on
the Gates comprehension test). These students were assessed for vocabulary
knowledge, word reading, reading efficiency (fluency), and inferencing. The researchers
analyzed the direct and indirect effect of word reading and vocab knowledge on
reading comprehension. (Indirect effects included the effect of each these two components on reading efficiency and inferencing multiplied by the respective effect of reading
efficiency and inferencing on reading comprehension.) In the end, the authors could
then consider the total effects of word reading and vocab on reading comp for a)
the total sample, b) the adequate comprehenders, and c) the struggling comprehenders.
So, here, in a nutshell, are the outcomes:
1)
Word
reading was a significant predictor of comprehension for the entire sample
(effect .21); however, word reading had a large effect on comprehension for struggling
comprehenders and a negligible effect for adequate comprehenders. This supports
the notion that, in the authors’ words, “there
is a threshold of word reading skill that has to be met before its relation to
reading comprehension subsides. It is possible that the struggling
comprehenders did not have the requisite word reading skills necessary to
easily extract meaning from text.”
2)
Vocabulary
was a greater significant predictor of comprehension for the entire sample than
word reading (effect .60). Vocabulary had a larger effect on
comprehension for adequate comprehenders (.62) than struggling comprehenders (.18).
The authors summed up these results in this way, “While vocabulary favored the
adequate group as a predictor, it was also a statistically significant
predictor for the struggling comprehenders. Thus, vocabulary plays an important
role for struggling and adequate readers alike.”
3)
Vocabulary
knowledge significantly positively impacted the adequate readers’ reading efficiency
and inferencing. In simple terms, students with higher vocabulary scores were slightly more
fluent readers and better at making inferences.
4)
Without
getting into the more complex details, the outcomes related to the struggling comprehenders led the authors to conclude…
“instruction in word reading and vocabulary may lead to
greater gains for struggling readers than instruction aimed at increasing
fluency. Indeed, this view is supported in the synthesis of effective interventions
for struggling adolescent readers by Edmonds et al., who found that word
reading instruction led to greater and more consistent gains than fluency instruction.”
I would summarize things this way.
It is clear that word reading difficulties have a strong impact on students’
comprehension. Basically, until students can read the words well, other components matter
less: the students are simply hung up on reading the words. On the other hand, once students reach a high
level of word reading proficiency, knowing the meanings of the individual words
greatly impacts their reading comprehension, both directly and because it makes
them better at inferencing and slightly more fluent.
My takeaway is that elementary
schools should prioritize both of these key components! I believe that it quite
feasible for elementary schools to equip nearly all students with strong word reading
skills, and, if we can, we should. But, just as significantly, vocabulary knowledge
was a significant predictor of comprehension for all students and particularly for
the adequate comprehenders. Teachers often ask me, “We rightfully think a lot about
our lower-performing students. But, how can we push those kids right in the middle
to a higher level? Well, this study shows that if we want students to be especially
strong comprehenders in middle school, we need to be teaching vocabulary comprehensively
and consistently across the elementary grades. So, at this point, I’ll put in a
plug for my earlier CLC post on VALE vocabulary instruction. Check it out
below!
Oslund, E., Clemens,
N., Simmons, D.. & Simmons, D. (2018). The direct and indirect effects of
word reading and vocabulary on adolescents’ reading comprehension: Comparing
struggling and adequate comprehenders. Reading and Writing, 31, 355-379.
Saturday, January 4, 2020
Kindergarten Reading Intervention: The Impact of Intensity and Instructional Design
In prep for my upcoming Literacy Difficulties class, I recently
read a research article on reading intervention in kindergarten that struck me
as very important, and thus I thought that I would attempt to briefly summarize
the findings here. As I guy who has said for many years, “It is not just about
teaching the right stuff, but also doing it at the right level of intensity,” I
loved the design of the study. Specifically, the researchers compared outcomes
for students who participated in three differently designed kindergarten interventions.
The three interventions were designed to compare the effects of two key
variables – time and “design specificity.” So, the three treatments were… 1) 30
minutes of HIGH-design-specificity, code-based instruction, 2) 15 minutes of HIGH-design-specificity,
code-based instruction + 15 minutes of read aloud, vocab and narrative structure
instruction, and 3) 30 minutes of MODERATE-design-specificity, code-based
instruction. Based on these interventions, the researchers could compare groups
1-2 to examine the effects of additional instructional time on key code-based
objectives (e.g., phonemic awareness, phonics, beginning decoding/spelling) and
groups 1-3 to examine the effects of design specificity. There were many assessments
used and thus many comparisons. I will try to do justice to the findings very briefly…
1)
Students in the 30-minute HIGH treatment scored significantly
greater growth than students in the 15-minute HIGH + 15-minute story reading in
letter naming and writing, decoding, word reading and spelling. The two groups performed
equally on phoneme segmenting. Importantly, the 30-minute HIGH treatment was
differentially more effective for students who entered K with the lowest alphabet
knowledge (naming 3 or fewer letter names – 70% of the total sample). In short,
for the students with the lowest alphabetic knowledge, 30-minute of highly
specifically designed code-based instruction was much more effective than 15. 15
minutes of such instruction was equally effective for students who were at the “top”
of the bottom 25% in alphabetic knowledge. In simple terms, kids who start really
low in terms of early literacy knowledge need not just carefully targeted instruction
but also “the right intensity” (time on task) of this instruction.
2)
Students in the 30-minute HIGH treatment scored significantly
greater growth than students in the 30-minute MODERATE treatment in letter naming
and writing, decoding, word reading and spelling. Similar to the above
comparison, the 30-minute HIGH treatment was differentially more effective for
students who entered K with the lowest alphabet knowledge (naming 3 or fewer letter
names – 70% of the total sample). In short, for the students with the lowest alphabetic
knowledge, 30 minutes of highly specifically designed code-based instruction
was much more effective than 30 minutes of moderately specifically designed code-based
instruction. So, once again, to maximize growth of kids who start really low in
terms of early literacy knowledge, it is critical that the instruction not just
target the “right stuff” but also have excellent design.
Overall, there were a lot of
effect sizes involved. So, practically speaking, I will just say this to give a
sense of the magnitude of the gains: The kids in the 30-High treatment ended up
at the 67% on Dibels decoding whereas those in the other conditions ended up at
about the 40%. And, a little info on “specifically designed instruction:” this
variable involved elements such as explicitness of big ideas, scaffolding, and strategic
review.
The bottom line here seems quite
clear: Just generally “doing the right stuff” doesn’t cut it with our neediest students;
maximizing the growth of these kiddos requires carefully designed code-based
instruction and A LOT OF IT!
Simmons, D., Kame’enui,
E., Harn, B., Coyne, M., Edwards, L., & Thomas, C. (2007). The effects of
instructional emphasis and
specificity on
early reading and vocabulary development of kindergarten children. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 40, 331-347.
Sunday, December 29, 2019
Implementing Multi-Tiered Support Systems in Reading in the Messy World of Real Schools
Hello Friends!
In preparing for my annual spring term Literacy Difficulties course, I came across two excellent, recent pieces on implementing MTSS in reading that I have not used in the past (refs at bottom). Both pieces issued from a successful collaboration between a State Department of Education and researchers at a state university that focused on supporting four very high-needs schools in developing, implementing, and refining school-wide MTSS systems in reading. Significantly, the project produced the kinds of outcomes that most schools hunger for: Two years of implementation of the MTSS systems produced a +0.5 effect size in students’ reading achievement, meaning that students who received two years of supports accelerated their reading performance by 19 percentile points.
The pieces, which overlap quite a bit,
begin with the premise that most schools know, in general, what needs to
be done in terms of implementing MTSS in reading but “underestimate
the supports that schools need to
build systems and infrastructure to implement and sustain these practices.” The
authors then go into detail in terms of how the project schools “worked to
overcome the complexities inherent in implementing multitiered reading supports
in high-priority schools,” providing "examples of how schools involved with the
K–3 reading initiative delved into the details to move past barriers and build
the systems and infrastructure to implement a comprehensive MTSS framework
fully, with fidelity and consistency.” I found that pieces were highly
engaging, filled with practical insights, and extremely challenging, as they describe
many specific practices that enabled the schools to be successful but that, quite honestly, most schools typically just don’t have in place.
It would take quite a bit of
verbiage to adequately summarize the content of the pieces, and I was unable to upload a chart from the Coyne chapter that would have done it for me. So, here is the briefest of summaries. Both pieces identify a set of four common stumbling
blocks, that they present in the form of practical statements, that often trip up schools’ attempts to implement MTSS in reading in
robust ways:
- "We have an MTSS plan, but it doesn't guide our day-to-day reading practice."
- "We have identified a common approach to Tier 1, but it doesn't seem like there is consistency in reading instruction across teachers and classrooms."
- "We have useful reading data from our students, but it feels like we are not able to use it to make meaningful instructional decisions for all our students."
- "We have students who need intensive small-group instruction, but now what?"
The pieces then go on to present examples of exactly how the four schools overcame these obstacles, detailing the establishment of literacy leadership teams and the teams' long- and short-term objectives; decisions regarding planning, prioritizing, and meeting; and tools for utilizing data. Again, it is beyond the scope of this post to lay out these "solutions" in detail. But, if these stumbling blocks sound familiar and the idea of actual practical solutions is thought-provoking, email me and I can send the chapter/articles to you in PDF. They will
provide much more specific description of the practices and tools that the
project schools employed to address these issues.
Overall, I would leave you with these
following critical points:
1)
Most
schools vastly underestimate the challenges involved in implementing a robust
MTSS system in reading and greatly overestimate the degree to which MTSS
practices are implemented fully and with fidelity.
2)
Partial
implementation of MTSS systems in reading likely will not improve student
outcomes, particularly for students with, or at risk, for learning disabilities (Balu
et al., 2015). "Half way" just isn't good enough, and ends up being a waste of vitally important resources. It really takes “everything and the kitchen sink” to produce the
outcomes we desire.
3)
There
are schools out there – in extremely challenging settings – that are “getting
it right.” If they can do it, you can do it! And, if you can do it, you should
do it!
4)
These
two pieces will give you plenty of real, practical guidance in constructing a
robust MTSS system in reading. I would also be happy to “join the discussion”
if your school is genuinely interested in undertaking this process.
Implementing multitiered K–3 reading supports in high-priority schools. In B. Foorman
(Ed.), Challenges to implementing effective reading intervention in schools. New Directions for
Child and Adolescent Development, 154, 67–85.
Leonard, K., Coyne,M. D., Oldham,
A., Leonard, K., Burns, D.,& Gillis, M.B. (2019). Implementing MTSS in
Beginning Reading: Tools and Systems to Support Schools and Teachers. Learning
Disabilities Research & Practice, 34(2), 110–117
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